ВЫПИСАТЬ ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЕ ТЕРМИНЫ ИЗ ТЕКСТА И ИХ ПЕРЕВЕСТИ.СОСТАВИТЬ 5 ВОПРОСОВ С ЭТИМИ ТЕРМИНАМИ. СОСТАВИТЬ КЛАСТЕР ТЕКСТА НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

Criminology

Criminology is a social science dealing with the nature, extent, and causes of crime; the characteristics of criminals and their organizations; the problems of apprehending and convicting offenders; the operation of prisons and other correctional institutions; the rehabilitation of convicts both in and out of prison; and the prevention of crime.  The science of criminology has two basic objectives: to determine the causes, whether personal or social, of criminal behaviour and to evolve valid principles for the social control of crime. In pursuing these objectives. Criminology draws on the findings of biology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, and related fields. Criminology originated in the late 18 century when various movements began to question the humanity and efficiency of using punishment for retribution rather than deterrence and reform. There arose as a consequence what is called the classical school of criminology, which aimed to mitigate legal penalties and humanize penal institutions. During
the 19^th century the positivist school attempted to extend scientific neutrality the understanding of crime. Because they held that criminals were shaped by their environment, positivists emphasized case studies and rehabilitative measures. A later school, the 'social defence' movement, stressed the importance of balance between the rights of criminals and the rights of society. Criminologists commonly use several research techniques. The collection and interpretation of statistics is generally the initial step in research. The case study, often used by psychologists, concentrates on an individual or a group. The typological method involves classifying offences, criminals, or criminal areas according to various criteria. Sociological research, which may involve many different techniques, is used in criminology to study groups, subcultures, and gangs as well as rates and kinds of crime within geographic areas. Criminology has many practical applications. Its findings can give lawyers, judges, and prison officials a better understanding of criminals, which may lead to more effective treatment. Criminological research can be used by legislators and in the reform of laws and of penal institutions.

Professor Lombroso is a criminologist whose views, though not altogether correct, caused a lot of interest and made other people look into the problem of crime in a more scientific way. He is regarded as the father of the scientific study of criminals, or criminology. Lombroso studied at the universities of Padua, Vienna, and Paris, and later he became a professor of psychiatry and forensic medicine, a director of a mental asylum. In an enormous book called The Criminal, he set out the idea that there is a definite criminal type, who can be recognized by his or her appearance. Some of what he said is difficult to believe. For example  he said that left-handed persons have a criminal instinct. Among the things he considered important were the shape of the head, color of the hair, the curve of the chin and forehead and if the ears stick out. Lombroso's theories were widely influential in Europe for a time, but his emphasis on hereditary causes of crime was later strongly rejected in favor of environmental factors.   Lombroso tried to reform the Italian

penal system, and he encouraged more humane and constructive treatment of convicts through the use of work programs intended to make them more productive members of society.

The causes of crime

 No one knows why crime occurs. The oldest theory, based on theology and ethics, is that criminals are perverse persons who deliberately commit crimes or who do so at the instigation of the devil or other evil spirits. Although this idea has been discarded by modern criminologists, it persists among uninformed people and provides the rationale for the harsh punishments still meted out to criminals in many parts of the world.

 Since the 18^th century, various scientific theories have been advanced to explain crime. One of the first efforts to explain crime on scientific, rather than theological, grounds was made at the end of the

18^lh century by the German physician and anatomist Franz Joseph Gall, who tried toestablish relationships between skull structure and criminal proclivities. This theory, popular during the 19^th century, is now discredited and has been abandoned. A more sophisticated theory — a logical one — was developed late in the 19-th century by the Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who asserted that crimes were committed by persons who are born with certain recognizable hereditary physical traits.

Lombroso's theory was disproved early in the 20-th century by the British criminologist Charles Goring. Goring's comparative study of jailed criminals and law-abiding persons established that so-called criminal types, with innate dispositions to crime, do not exist. Recent scientific studies  have tended to confirm Goring's findings. Some investigators still hold, however, that specific abnormalities of the brain and of the endocrine system contribute to a person's inclination toward criminal activity.

 Another approach to an explanation of crime was initiated by the French political philosopher Montesquieu, who attempted to relate criminal behavior to natural, or physical environment. His successors gathered evidence tending to show that crimes against person, such as homicide, are relatively more numerous in warm climates, whereas crimes against property, such as theft, are more frequent in colder regions. Other studies seem to indicate that the incidence of crime declines in direct ratio to drops in barometric pressure, to increased humidity, and to high temperature.   

 Many prominent criminologists of the 19"' century, particularly those associated with the socialist movement, attributed crime mainly to the influence of poverty. They pointed out that persons who are unable to provide adequately for themselves and their families through normal legal channels are frequently driven to theft, burglary prostitution, and other offences. The incidence of crime especially tends to rise in times widespread unemployment: Present-day criminologists take a broader and deeper view; they place the blame for most crimes on the whole range of environmental conditions associated with poverty. The living conditions of the poor, particularly of those in slums, are characterized overcrowding, lack of privacy, inadequate play space and recreation facilities, and poor sanitation. Such conditions engender feelings of deprivation and hopelessness and are conducive to crime as a means of escape. The feeling is encouraged by the example set by those who have escaped to what appears to be the better way of life made possible by criminals. Some theorists relate the incidence of crime to the general state of a culture, especially the impact of economic crises, wars, and revolution and the general sense of insecurity and uprootedness to which these forces give rise. As a society becomes more unsettled and its people more restless and fearful of the future, the crime rate tends to rise. This is particular true of juvenile crime, as the experience of the United States since World War II has made evident.

 The final major group theories  are  psychological   and psychiatric. Studies by such century    investigators    as    the American criminologist Bernard Glueck and the British psychiatrist William Healy indicated that a one-fourth of a typical   convict population is psychotic, neurotic or    emotionally   unstable   and another one-fourth is    mentally deficient. These emotional and mental     conditions     do not  automatically      make      people criminals, but do, it is believed, make them more prone to criminality. Recent studies of criminals have further light on the kinds of emotional disturbances that may to criminal behavior.

    Since the mid-20^til century, the notion that crime can be explained single theory has fallen into disfavour among investigators. Instead, experts incline to so-called multiple factor, or multiple causation theories.

They reason that crime springs from a multiplicity of conflicting and converging influences — biological, psychological, cultural, economic political. The multiple causation explanations seem more credible than the earlier, simpler theories. An understanding of the causes of crime  elusive, however, because the interrelationship of causes is difficult to determine.